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CATESOL Book Review: Using Home Language as a Resource in the Classroom: A Guide for Teachers of English Learners by Kate Paterson
03/23/2025
Michelle Skowbo
Review by Liza E. Martinez, EdD
The value of home heritage languages is immense, as they play a crucial role in shaping individual identity, maintaining cultural connections, and supporting cognitive development. This book was reviewed in June of 2022. The review was brief, in some way reflecting the length of the book compared to other reviews of longer texts. However, home/heritage languages in the classroom can be a fundamental resource for English language learners and instructors. Here, a more in-depth review of the book is provided to readers.
Introduction
Teachers know that meaningful and engaging instruction occurs when their students’ cultures and life experiences are validated. What about the use of students’ home languages (L1) in the classroom? What does home language use look like when the teacher is not bilingual? Kate Paterson explores these questions and others in Using home languages as a resource in the classroom: A guide for teachers of English learners (2021). Written for current and future teachers of English learners, this comprehensive guide challenges the long-held belief that English-only instruction is the best and fastest means for English learners (ELs) to become proficient. Recent research contradicts this view; in fact, the use of English learners’ home languages (L1) in the classroom enhances learning their second language (L2). Drawing from these findings, Paterson contends that the use of L1 does not only have to take place in the ESL classroom. Instead, it can be used in any classroom when English impedes students from comprehending information. Therefore, these ELs should be allowed to switch to their L1. In this way, these students can take part in activities without waiting until L2 comprehension materializes. As a result, English learners who are behind their native English counterparts in content classes will not fall further behind (Paterson, 2021, p. 6).
What about the use of students’ L1 when the teacher is not bilingual? According to Paterson (2021), “This book provides guidance on how to utilize students’ L1 in service of learning regardless of [a teacher’s] own language background” (p. 6). Furthermore, the curriculum is not watered down. Instead, L2 students use all their linguistic resources (L1 and L2) to make cognitively challenging material comprehensible.
Paterson explores the issues above and others in more detail in her 4-chapter guide. Chapter 1 explores evidence-based teaching and social justice. In chapter 2, Paterson explains when, how, and to what extent the home language is used. For chapter 3, the home language is examined using TESOL’s 6 Principles for Exemplary Teaching of English Learners. Chapter 4 addresses moving to a more equitable future. In addition to these chapters, the guide provides online resources that teachers can use. Furthermore, questions and activities are found throughout the book that can be used by teachers on their own or discussed during a pre-service or in-service training session.
Chapter 1: Evidence-based teaching and social justice: Why home language is essential to student success
Chapter 1 begins with a foundation of why the home language is essential for English learners’ success at school. Paterson describes four interrelated assumptions that are held by English-only adherents. They are:
For assumption 2, L1 proficiency is not separate from L2. Instead, both languages are a part of a single unified linguistic system. This is known as the Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP). It enables skills to be transferred from L1 to L2; therefore, linguistic resources are shared. For example, a student’s language and literacy development in L1 is a strong predictor of language and literacy development in L2. English Learners can use what they know in their L1 to support learning in L2. Furthermore, the time spent developing L1 language and literacy will be helpful in learning L2.
For assumption 3, the notion that translating is detrimental to L2 learning is challenged. Translation can be particularly beneficial when it comes to vocabulary acquisition. This is the hub from which the four major language skills (speaking, listening, reading, and writing) are drawn. For Paterson, English learners who have low proficiency in English can use translation dictionaries. They are likely to gain a complete understanding of words in less time.
For assumption 4, it is presumed that an English Learner who can speak conversational English fluidly is ready to take content area classes in English. In fact, these English Learners struggle because they are missing the academic language necessary to function successfully in the new environment. Paterson (2021) states that these individuals need L1 in order “to access curricular content, develop academic English language and skills, and engage in classroom-based cognitive processes more effectively” (p 11).
Five Types of Cross-Lingual Transfer
Cummins (2007a) describes five major types of cross-lingual transfer (as cited in Paterson, 2021, p. 11). The first one entails the transfer of conceptual elements. For example, a student may know what brain means in Spanish but does not know that word in English. By giving this student the English word, he can quickly transfer what he knows about this word in Spanish to English. The second type of transfer is metacognitive and metalinguistic strategies. This entails the use of approaches to learn a word by visualizing, graphic organizers, mnemonic devices, and vocabulary acquisition strategies. Next, there is the use of nonverbal features such as gestures and facial expressions to make one understood. The fourth involves making connections through cognates in L1 and L2. Finally, there is the fifth, phonological awareness. It involves the knowledge that each letter is associated with a sound. Each of these cross-lingual transfers are followed by lessons that teachers can use.
Examining Assumptions for Professional Development
Paterson examines widely held assumptions about L2 instruction through the realm of professional development. She provides evidence that refutes widely held assumptions. For example, there is the belief that time in the ESL classroom should only be spent communicating in English. In fact, the use of L1, especially at the beginning levels, can save time, improve understanding, and build confidence in the English Learner. This may result in more amounts of English spoken.
Another assumption is that English-only is the fastest and most effective way to learn English. English Learners can draw on the knowledge and skills already developed in the L1 learning strategies, cognate connections, and conceptual knowledge, and transfer them to L2 (Paterson, 2021, p. 15).
There is also the long-held belief that switching from L2 to L1 is done because the person is at a loss for words. In fact, an English Learner who switches to his L1 may do so because he wishes to identify with a particular group, or it may have to do with the context. Switching between L1 and L2 does not necessarily mean the person is deficient in English.
When it comes to monolingual teachers, they believe they have no choice but only to allow English in their classrooms. Paterson disagrees. Monolingual teachers can use bilingual instructional strategies. Furthermore, they can provide space for English Learners to draw on their full linguistic repertoire: L1 and L2. English Learners could use an online translation device or brainstorm in their L1. Finally, they can also work in pairs or groups with students who share their L1; together, they can discuss a complex text.
The Role of Home Language in Student Identity Formation and Advancing Social Justice
Paterson addresses home language as an important link to English Learners’ family, community, and self-identity. To prohibit an English Learner from using his L1 is to send the message that there is something deficient with his language and himself. According to Paterson (2021),
To disrupt this, social justice instruction is needed which can serve to empower English learners and marginalized students. As a first step, teachers need to reflect on their own teacher expectation biases. For Paterson (2021), “It is only by naming and disrupting structural inequities and orchestrating instruction that actively include those who have historically been excluded from education that we provide truly equitable educational environments” (p. 23).
Developing Critical Language Awareness
Key to creating a socially just classroom is for teachers to converse with students of how language is connected to larger constructs of power and inequality. English learners should understand that language choice is not neutral. They should learn from their teacher that the language they use (L1 or L2) along with the register (conversational/academic) will depend upon the audience and context. Furthermore, proficiency in academic language is important since it is a precursor to economic success.
The next sections involve lessons that can be used to build critical awareness from young children to adolescents to adults. Discussion questions are provided that can be adapted depending on the students’ ages. Some of the questions are as follows:
Make Language Diversity a Part of the Curriculum
The end of a social just/critically aware classroom is one which celebrates and sustains diversity rather than tolerates it. Paterson offers suggestions on how language diversity can be made a part of the curriculum. This can be done in numerous ways.
Closing Thoughts
Chapter 1 provides the foundation for the rest of the book. It dispels a number of long held assumptions about the ESL/EFL teaching, which demonstrate that use of English learners’ L1 is essential to all classrooms. Finally, it provides English learners with equitable educational opportunities.
Chapter 2: Out of Minds and into Classroom Spaces: When, How, and How Much Home Language to Incorporate into Instruction
When it comes to using the home language ( L1) in the classroom, more definitive research is needed on how much of it is beneficial to English Learners (ELs). At present, there is no clear-cut answer. As a result, a teacher may choose for ELs to use L1 and English throughout the school day. Another option is to maintain an English-only space while permitting L1 use in specific situations. Regardless of what is chosen, language choice is not neutral. Cook (as cited in Paterson, 2021, pp. 33 and 34) suggests four questions that teachers can use to determine how much L1 to use in the classroom.
Bilingual Teaching Strategies and the Monolingual Teacher
As previously asked, what happens if the teacher is not bilingual? Such a teacher can still set up bilingual teaching strategies. As a result, teacher control will be altered; EL students will have greater independence, and they will exert power over their learning. Furthermore, they will build their self-confidence, produce improved academic outcomes, and promote positive teacher-student relationships. How will the teacher know what her students are talking about when they are working in groups? The following are suggested.
For writing, ELs are encouraged to write in their L1 or both languages. This can be done individually or in a group with the same L1. Another strategy would be to have ELs read or tell stories in their L1 and then translate them into English. They will then be read to other students.
For speaking, teachers give ELs time to use their L1 to discuss a topic or task; this could lead to extended English speaking. Another task would be to encourage students to discuss schoolwork at home and get help from family members by using the L1.
For listening, encourage older learners to take class notes in their L1 or a combination of their L1 and English. Teachers use students’ L1 to provide instructions, particularly if it is a complicated task. If the teacher is not bilingual, use a student or a machine translation tool to facilitate and ensure ELs comprehend what they are expected to do. By understanding instructions and outcomes, ELs are placed on more equal footing with their non-EL peers.
Older Students
An adolescent or adult must progress at a rapid pace in a mainstream or L2 classroom. These students are judged on their productive skills from the moment they enter the classroom. Language is the focus. Older learners have many fears: making mistakes, taking risks, and being judged by others. They also compare themselves to native English speakers. Research has shown that older students benefit greatly from L1 use in the classroom. It is important to validate students’ L1 and use it as a resource for academic learning. Otherwise, students will be at a higher risk of alienation and underachievement. By using all of their linguistic resources, students’ identities will be affirmed, and their self-confidence will increase. These students have a lot to contribute to their own learning and that of others.
Students with Limited or Interrupted Formal Education (SLIFE)
Research has shown that the benefits of use of L1 in the classroom is potentially even greater for students with limited or interrupted formal education (SLIFE). These students have developed their L1 differently from ELs who have had a formal education. For SLIFE, learning is situated in the family and community in a mentoring or apprenticeship cycle. As such, their learning is not based on print-based literacy. Instead, information is communicated orally and non-verbally at the same time that they are observing or participating in a hands-on process. In this scenario, the mentor shares knowledge with the learner. This is different from a teacher-student relationship which is not close. Even though SLIFE lack academic experience, they might possess skills and knowledge that are not traditionally valued at school. According to Paterson (2021), “It is crucial for teachers to recognize the resources that SLIFE bring to the classroom, be open to learning about them, and be willing to experiment with how to best utilize them in support of school-based learning” (p. 41).
L1 and the Digital Age
Language learning in the digital age is no longer limited to face-to-face interaction accompanied by text-based materials. Now, L1 can be integrated into “students’ digital realities” (Paterson, 2021, p. 42). One way is through digital storytelling. “This is a powerful way to build students’ school-based literacy. It provides students with the opportunity to construct multi-modal narratives which reflect their interests and lives outside of the classroom (Patterson, 2021, p. 43). Digital stories can take on different forms: e.g., creative, information-based, opinion-based, instructional or autobiographical. These projects can be used for all levels. They can also be published as hard copies or posted on an online platform. In these ways, they will reach larger audiences; students’ products are validated and are no longer limited to the classroom. According to Paterson (2021), “[Students] get a sense that the work they do in the classroom actually matters and has practical value in the wider world. In the process, their identities as competent biliterate and bilingual individuals are affirmed” (p. 45).
Chapter 3: Home Language and TESOL’s 6 Principles for Exemplary Teaching of English Learners
Created in 2018, TESOL’s 6 Principles of Exemplary Teaching of English Learners provide the foundation for effective English language instruction. These principles can be used at any age level and subject area for ELs; their focus is to develop ELs socially and academically. Chapter 3 explains how the home language can be beneficial and integrated into the 6 principles which entail
Principle 1: Know Your Learners
In order to know ELs’ full linguistic repertoire, teachers need to know their students. In this way, teachers can connect what students know to the knowledge required for them to be successful in the classroom. A way to achieve this is by using the L1 in classroom activities. Among the activities that can be used are 1) meeting with families; 2) utilizing apps like ClassDojo and Remind which send messages to parents and share what is happening in the classroom; 3) communicating in the home language through welcome letters, calendars, and classroom forms; 4) use of journals whereby the family can communicate in L1 and English; 5) inviting guest speakers; and 6) welcoming family members to classroom events, project presentations, readers’ theater, and award ceremonies.
English Learners as Language Brokers
Language brokering, which involves translanguaging, takes place in many sites: classrooms, stores, banks, post offices, doctor’s offices, and government agencies; it can involve spoken or written discourse. Furthermore, it involves mediating and fostering the same linguistic resources that are needed to have academic success. For example, a language broker must “synthesize, label, describe, ask for clarification, and gauge whether they have accurately understood and conveyed meanings correctly” (Pimentel & Sevin, as cited in Paterson, 2021, p. 51). In terms of benefits, active brokering has been significantly related to increased standardized test scores for reading comprehension and mathematics (Dorner et al, 2007, as cited in Paterson, 2021, p. 52).
Principle 2: Create Conditions for Language Learning
It is important to create a positive and safe classroom in order for language learning to occur. When ELs know that they can use their L1, their anxiety decreases significantly. This enables them to be open to learning challenging academic content. As a result, ELs are in a better position to comprehend instructions fully and keep up with their peers. Paterson provides examples of how inclusive classrooms can be created.
Principle 3: Design High-Quality Lessons for Language Development
According to Paterson (2021), Principle 3 encompasses the following:
L1 plays an integral part in the design and delivery of lessons. It provides the opportunity for teachers to determine students’ competencies even if they are beginners in the L2. According to Paterson (2021), “If students can use L1 to demonstrate what they have learned, the teacher can create lessons that separate language proficiency from curricular objectives, fairly assess student progress, better identify challenge areas, and clearly communicate objectives and feedback to students” (p. 55).
Using Home Language to Actively Engage Learners with Relevant and Meaningful Content
The use of L1 helps ELs to connect with complex academic language that is found in reading and writing. If ELs are not given the opportunity to develop vocabulary and grammar, they are unlikely to comprehend and communicate complex academic content in L2. To resolve this, Cummins et al. (2012) offers 4 instructional dimensions.
Using Home Language to Facilitate Differentiated Learning
Differentiated learning uses multiple paths to learn challenging material. Key is scaffolding which can entail the use of the L1. In this way, students can use what they know in the L1 to scaffold to English. The amount of L1 that is used in the classroom can be modified depending on how challenging a task is as well as an EL’s proficiency level, needs and goals. There are different types of materials that can be used: wordless books (grades K-6), storytelling (K-6), jigsaw (K-6), wordless poetry books (grades 2-6), and creative writing (grades 2-6).
Using Home Language to Promote the Use of Learning Strategies and Critical Thinking
The L1 can be used to promote learning strategies and critical thinking. The learning strategies consist of the following: metacognitive and metalinguistic strategies; cognitive strategies; and social/affective strategies. For metacognitive/metalinguistic strategies, have students engage in self-monitoring, comprehension and production, selective attention, visualization, and organizational planning (Paterson, 2021, p 64).
Cognitive strategies which involve critical thinking can take the form of note-taking, guessing meaning from context, or extending prior knowledge. For example, have ELs take notes in English and their L1. Another strategy is allowing ELs to prewrite in their L1. This can later result in more complex writing in English.
Social/affective strategies take place in cooperating with others, empathizing, asking for clarifications, and self-talk. These strategies can make a difference to the extent that learning occurs.
Using Home Language to Promote Students’ Self-Regulated Learning
Allowing ELs to draw on their prior knowledge sets up students for being able to complete tasks on their own. This also leads to increased self-confidence and self-reliance in the classroom. Furthermore, it leads to more active participants in the classroom. Finally, these ELs will have a deeper understanding of newly introduced concepts, vocabulary, and a positive learning environment.
Principle 4: Adapt Lesson Delivery as Needed
This principle involves using L1 “at the moment.” Based on learners’ responses, “L1 may be used to aid comprehension of auditory and written input, scaffold learning, and/or provide opportunities for students to demonstrate learning” (Paterson, 2021, p. 65). Three activities are introduced that instructors can use: 1) 10-2 activities (teach for 10 minutes and give the students 2 minutes to interact with the new information); 2) comprehension checks (thumbs up/thumbs down, response boards); and 3) adapting the product of the learning task (creating bilingual culminating projects and presentations) (Paterson, 2021, p. 66).
Principle 5: Monitor and Assess Student Language Development
Students may have the competency of a new concept but not have the proficiency to express themselves. The inclusion of L1 corrects this very serious flaw of English-only assessment for ELs. L1 use makes it possible to differentiate what a student knows and can do using their entire linguistic repertoire from what they are able to demonstrate using only English (p. 67). Garcia, Johnson et al. (2017) provide a translanguaging device for assessment. It gathers information across students’ repertoire to evaluate what they know and can do with content and language relative to standards, objectives, and culminating projects (as cited in Paterson, 2021, p. 68).
Principle 6: Engage and Collaborate within a Community of Practice
A community of practice involves a group of professionals who engage collectively to learn more about their profession. Now it is imperative that all teachers work collaboratively to help their students, which include ELs. Bilingual or dual-language teachers, as well those who share the L1 and culture with ELs, are resources that non-bilingual teachers can tap. School administrators also have a role to play in arranging scheduling in such a way that allows teachers to come together in collaborative professional learning teams to share knowledge and teaching tools. (Paterson, 2021, p. 71). Therefore, it is important to establish communities of practice where all school personnel are responsible for ELs’ success.
Finally, there is reflective practice. It is also instrumental in engaging within a community of practice. This means teachers examine their assumptions of everyday practices and evaluate them. Approaching teaching as a reflective practitioner involves melding personal beliefs and values into a professional identity (Paterson, 2021, p. 71). This identity will work towards equitable instruction for all students.
Chapter 4: Moving Toward a More Equitable Future
Paterson calls for a shift when it comes to teaching EL students. Instead of following a deficit model, with its authoritarian, Euro-centric stance, an asset-based approach is advocated: i.e., one that embraces ELs’ L1 as well as their accomplishments in the L2. Furthermore, Paterson (2021) examines such elements as 1) the standards used to measure ELs success in English; 2) course materials that promote diversity in the classroom; 3) the possible discrepancy between language competence and language proficiency; and 4) the adoption of a plurilingual stance (p. 75).
Redefining Success
Success for ELs needs to be reconsidered. Ideally, it should be the English used by effective L2 users and not native English speakers. The dilemma is that there are no curricular descriptions of what this actually looks like. For Paterson (2021), “…[W]e should focus on what [ELs] are able to do with their language skills, including what they accomplish using all of the languages in their repertoire” (p. 77). Rather than compare ELs to monolingual native English speakers, Paterson (2021) wants educators to consider whether ELs are able to
Paterson ends this section by noting that if a student is unable to express himself in English, this does not mean he lacks the knowledge or the skill of a particular objective. Use of the L1 can provide insight on how much English is understood.
Reimaging Instructional Materials
According to the British Council (2013), the ratio of L2 speakers to native English speakers is 4 to 1 (as cited in Paterson, 2021, p. 79). As such, there is a need for more models of L2 user speech in the classroom. In our increasingly digitally intertwined world, this would help prepare L2 and native English speakers for real-life interactions with people who speak different varieties of English.
As for textbooks, they tend to focus on the “powerful native English speaker.” Paterson (2021) calls for
Paterson (2021) ends this section by providing practice ideas. One is called “Identify, Record, and Discuss Positive L2 User Role Models.” Here, students find three examples of successful L2 English speakers from their L1 background. Students are then asked why they think their examples are good models of L2 speakers. The results can enable the class to “set appropriate goals and begin establishing L2 user norms” (Paterson, 2021, p. 80). Paterson thinks this works best in ESL classrooms” (p. 80).
Another practice-based idea is creating an audiobook for kindergarten and grade 1 students. Essentially, a children’s book is recorded while it is read aloud. The technology used can be as sophisticated or as simple as the teacher/class requires. “The audiobooks become samples of L2 user English that can be used as models for future cohorts and younger students in the school. This activity works well with ESL and mixed student groups” (Paterson, 2021, pp. 80-81).
Toward Plurilingualism in (Language) Education
Plurilingualism focuses on the individual and not the group.
Adopting a plurilingualism stance is not limited to ESL teachers. Rather, teachers of any subject area and grade level can do so. A teacher with a plurilingual approach uses students’ knowledge to enhance learning and maintain high expectations for all students. Furthermore, teachers and students engage in critical conversation which examine “…the inequitable power structures embedded in education and broader society that disadvantages those from diverse backgrounds. A plurilingual orientation calls for a future of social justice” (Paterson, 2021, p. 83). Therefore, the classroom, which has been a place that reinforces inequities based on race, gender, and economics, can become a place of resistance and change.
Conclusion
I have been following translanguaging for some time. My question has been, what does it actually look like in the classroom? Paterson provides powerful examples and resources of how the L1 can be incorporated into any classroom even if the teacher is not bilingual. Paterson does not end there, however. She goes further by advocating for a plurilingual approach that challenges the barriers that have “recreated differences, restricted access, and marginalized children from linguistically and culturally diverse backgrounds” (p. 83). In the words of bell hooks (1994), “the classroom with all of its limitations, remains a location of possibility” (p. 207). The incorporation of ELs home language can definitely contribute to this.
References
Hooks, b.(1994). Teaching to transgress education as the practice of freedom. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203700280
Michelle Skowbo
Using Home Language as a Resource in the Classroom: A Guide for Teachers of English Learners by Kate Paterson
Review by Liza E. Martinez, EdD
The value of home heritage languages is immense, as they play a crucial role in shaping individual identity, maintaining cultural connections, and supporting cognitive development. This book was reviewed in June of 2022. The review was brief, in some way reflecting the length of the book compared to other reviews of longer texts. However, home/heritage languages in the classroom can be a fundamental resource for English language learners and instructors. Here, a more in-depth review of the book is provided to readers.
Introduction
Teachers know that meaningful and engaging instruction occurs when their students’ cultures and life experiences are validated. What about the use of students’ home languages (L1) in the classroom? What does home language use look like when the teacher is not bilingual? Kate Paterson explores these questions and others in Using home languages as a resource in the classroom: A guide for teachers of English learners (2021). Written for current and future teachers of English learners, this comprehensive guide challenges the long-held belief that English-only instruction is the best and fastest means for English learners (ELs) to become proficient. Recent research contradicts this view; in fact, the use of English learners’ home languages (L1) in the classroom enhances learning their second language (L2). Drawing from these findings, Paterson contends that the use of L1 does not only have to take place in the ESL classroom. Instead, it can be used in any classroom when English impedes students from comprehending information. Therefore, these ELs should be allowed to switch to their L1. In this way, these students can take part in activities without waiting until L2 comprehension materializes. As a result, English learners who are behind their native English counterparts in content classes will not fall further behind (Paterson, 2021, p. 6).
What about the use of students’ L1 when the teacher is not bilingual? According to Paterson (2021), “This book provides guidance on how to utilize students’ L1 in service of learning regardless of [a teacher’s] own language background” (p. 6). Furthermore, the curriculum is not watered down. Instead, L2 students use all their linguistic resources (L1 and L2) to make cognitively challenging material comprehensible.
Paterson explores the issues above and others in more detail in her 4-chapter guide. Chapter 1 explores evidence-based teaching and social justice. In chapter 2, Paterson explains when, how, and to what extent the home language is used. For chapter 3, the home language is examined using TESOL’s 6 Principles for Exemplary Teaching of English Learners. Chapter 4 addresses moving to a more equitable future. In addition to these chapters, the guide provides online resources that teachers can use. Furthermore, questions and activities are found throughout the book that can be used by teachers on their own or discussed during a pre-service or in-service training session.
Chapter 1: Evidence-based teaching and social justice: Why home language is essential to student success
Chapter 1 begins with a foundation of why the home language is essential for English learners’ success at school. Paterson describes four interrelated assumptions that are held by English-only adherents. They are:
- Learning two or more languages will negatively affect a child’s development in both languages.
- Proficiency in the L1 is separate from proficiency in English.
- Translation between L1 and English is detrimental to language and literacy development.
- Once students can speak English with reasonable fluency, they are ready to meet the demands of the curriculum solely in English (Paterson, 2021, pp. 9-10).
For assumption 2, L1 proficiency is not separate from L2. Instead, both languages are a part of a single unified linguistic system. This is known as the Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP). It enables skills to be transferred from L1 to L2; therefore, linguistic resources are shared. For example, a student’s language and literacy development in L1 is a strong predictor of language and literacy development in L2. English Learners can use what they know in their L1 to support learning in L2. Furthermore, the time spent developing L1 language and literacy will be helpful in learning L2.
For assumption 3, the notion that translating is detrimental to L2 learning is challenged. Translation can be particularly beneficial when it comes to vocabulary acquisition. This is the hub from which the four major language skills (speaking, listening, reading, and writing) are drawn. For Paterson, English learners who have low proficiency in English can use translation dictionaries. They are likely to gain a complete understanding of words in less time.
For assumption 4, it is presumed that an English Learner who can speak conversational English fluidly is ready to take content area classes in English. In fact, these English Learners struggle because they are missing the academic language necessary to function successfully in the new environment. Paterson (2021) states that these individuals need L1 in order “to access curricular content, develop academic English language and skills, and engage in classroom-based cognitive processes more effectively” (p 11).
Five Types of Cross-Lingual Transfer
Cummins (2007a) describes five major types of cross-lingual transfer (as cited in Paterson, 2021, p. 11). The first one entails the transfer of conceptual elements. For example, a student may know what brain means in Spanish but does not know that word in English. By giving this student the English word, he can quickly transfer what he knows about this word in Spanish to English. The second type of transfer is metacognitive and metalinguistic strategies. This entails the use of approaches to learn a word by visualizing, graphic organizers, mnemonic devices, and vocabulary acquisition strategies. Next, there is the use of nonverbal features such as gestures and facial expressions to make one understood. The fourth involves making connections through cognates in L1 and L2. Finally, there is the fifth, phonological awareness. It involves the knowledge that each letter is associated with a sound. Each of these cross-lingual transfers are followed by lessons that teachers can use.
Examining Assumptions for Professional Development
Paterson examines widely held assumptions about L2 instruction through the realm of professional development. She provides evidence that refutes widely held assumptions. For example, there is the belief that time in the ESL classroom should only be spent communicating in English. In fact, the use of L1, especially at the beginning levels, can save time, improve understanding, and build confidence in the English Learner. This may result in more amounts of English spoken.
Another assumption is that English-only is the fastest and most effective way to learn English. English Learners can draw on the knowledge and skills already developed in the L1 learning strategies, cognate connections, and conceptual knowledge, and transfer them to L2 (Paterson, 2021, p. 15).
There is also the long-held belief that switching from L2 to L1 is done because the person is at a loss for words. In fact, an English Learner who switches to his L1 may do so because he wishes to identify with a particular group, or it may have to do with the context. Switching between L1 and L2 does not necessarily mean the person is deficient in English.
When it comes to monolingual teachers, they believe they have no choice but only to allow English in their classrooms. Paterson disagrees. Monolingual teachers can use bilingual instructional strategies. Furthermore, they can provide space for English Learners to draw on their full linguistic repertoire: L1 and L2. English Learners could use an online translation device or brainstorm in their L1. Finally, they can also work in pairs or groups with students who share their L1; together, they can discuss a complex text.
The Role of Home Language in Student Identity Formation and Advancing Social Justice
Paterson addresses home language as an important link to English Learners’ family, community, and self-identity. To prohibit an English Learner from using his L1 is to send the message that there is something deficient with his language and himself. According to Paterson (2021),
When students’ identities are devalued through policies or instruction that excludes their language, culture, and experiences, there is little opportunity for meaningful connection between their lives and the curriculum. They are expected to learn in an environment detached from who they are and what they know. The result is often withdrawal and silence. Students end up failing in school. (p. 18).
To disrupt this, social justice instruction is needed which can serve to empower English learners and marginalized students. As a first step, teachers need to reflect on their own teacher expectation biases. For Paterson (2021), “It is only by naming and disrupting structural inequities and orchestrating instruction that actively include those who have historically been excluded from education that we provide truly equitable educational environments” (p. 23).
Developing Critical Language Awareness
Key to creating a socially just classroom is for teachers to converse with students of how language is connected to larger constructs of power and inequality. English learners should understand that language choice is not neutral. They should learn from their teacher that the language they use (L1 or L2) along with the register (conversational/academic) will depend upon the audience and context. Furthermore, proficiency in academic language is important since it is a precursor to economic success.
The next sections involve lessons that can be used to build critical awareness from young children to adolescents to adults. Discussion questions are provided that can be adapted depending on the students’ ages. Some of the questions are as follows:
- What is the difference between your language and your nationality?
- Does your language give you a sense of belonging to a certain group?
- Has your language ever made you feel like an “outsider”?
- What languages are powerful?
- What languages are marginalized?
- In what ways can being bilingual give you power? (Paterson, 2021, p. 25).
Make Language Diversity a Part of the Curriculum
The end of a social just/critically aware classroom is one which celebrates and sustains diversity rather than tolerates it. Paterson offers suggestions on how language diversity can be made a part of the curriculum. This can be done in numerous ways.
- Have students share their linguistic and cultural history.
- Ask students to teach the class about their language or linguistic variety.
- Have students translate stories, songs, and poems from their L1 or English dialect to academic English.
- Younger learners can put on plays or puppet shows and role-plays by using different languages or dialects.
Closing Thoughts
Chapter 1 provides the foundation for the rest of the book. It dispels a number of long held assumptions about the ESL/EFL teaching, which demonstrate that use of English learners’ L1 is essential to all classrooms. Finally, it provides English learners with equitable educational opportunities.
Chapter 2: Out of Minds and into Classroom Spaces: When, How, and How Much Home Language to Incorporate into Instruction
When it comes to using the home language ( L1) in the classroom, more definitive research is needed on how much of it is beneficial to English Learners (ELs). At present, there is no clear-cut answer. As a result, a teacher may choose for ELs to use L1 and English throughout the school day. Another option is to maintain an English-only space while permitting L1 use in specific situations. Regardless of what is chosen, language choice is not neutral. Cook (as cited in Paterson, 2021, pp. 33 and 34) suggests four questions that teachers can use to determine how much L1 to use in the classroom.
- “Can this be done more effectively through the L1? (Efficiency)” If ELs find that they do not know a word in English, their teacher could try to decipher the word in English, but this can take time. In this situation, it may be faster to offer the word in L1. This can prevent student frustration and anxiety. It may also be more important for ELs students to achieve the learning objective and acquire the content knowledge through the L1.
- “Will L1 used in this circumstance support the development of language and literacy skills and/or curricular content knowledge? (Learning)” As previously stated, L1 use facilitates the transfer of language and literacy skills to English. The teacher should encourage her EL students to use their L1 in order to make connections to the learning happening in class and see if it helps.
- “Will L1 use in this circumstance help students achieve the specific language competencies that they will need in the outside world (Real-World Relevance)?” Students who are bilingual are more prepared to participate in a multilingual society, such as the US, as well as our digitally intertwined world.
- “Will L1 use in this circumstance prompt equity and inclusion? Will it contribute to leveling the playing field for ELs? (Social Justice)” Using the L1 permits ELs to engage in as complex and creative tasks as native English speakers. Therefore, EL students are included and empowered. When EL students are restricted to English-only spaces, they are limited to drawing on fewer linguistic resources. As such, a large part of their voices is silenced. Permitting the use of L1 provides EL students with better opportunities to learn and excel academically. These instructional decisions are fused to social justice.
Bilingual Teaching Strategies and the Monolingual Teacher
As previously asked, what happens if the teacher is not bilingual? Such a teacher can still set up bilingual teaching strategies. As a result, teacher control will be altered; EL students will have greater independence, and they will exert power over their learning. Furthermore, they will build their self-confidence, produce improved academic outcomes, and promote positive teacher-student relationships. How will the teacher know what her students are talking about when they are working in groups? The following are suggested.
- Be specific. Provide students with an explicit and clear prompt. When students are given a specific prompt, they are more likely to stay on task.
- Listen. By listening to students, the teacher will notice when there is silence in the classroom. This means that students have stopped talking about the assigned topic.
- Observe body language. When ELs students have finished talking about an assigned topic, they will glance at the teacher. There may be subtle facial expressions or body language that indicate that the students are not on task.
- Assign a task. Have students complete a hands-on task to complete during or after discussion.
For writing, ELs are encouraged to write in their L1 or both languages. This can be done individually or in a group with the same L1. Another strategy would be to have ELs read or tell stories in their L1 and then translate them into English. They will then be read to other students.
For speaking, teachers give ELs time to use their L1 to discuss a topic or task; this could lead to extended English speaking. Another task would be to encourage students to discuss schoolwork at home and get help from family members by using the L1.
For listening, encourage older learners to take class notes in their L1 or a combination of their L1 and English. Teachers use students’ L1 to provide instructions, particularly if it is a complicated task. If the teacher is not bilingual, use a student or a machine translation tool to facilitate and ensure ELs comprehend what they are expected to do. By understanding instructions and outcomes, ELs are placed on more equal footing with their non-EL peers.
Older Students
An adolescent or adult must progress at a rapid pace in a mainstream or L2 classroom. These students are judged on their productive skills from the moment they enter the classroom. Language is the focus. Older learners have many fears: making mistakes, taking risks, and being judged by others. They also compare themselves to native English speakers. Research has shown that older students benefit greatly from L1 use in the classroom. It is important to validate students’ L1 and use it as a resource for academic learning. Otherwise, students will be at a higher risk of alienation and underachievement. By using all of their linguistic resources, students’ identities will be affirmed, and their self-confidence will increase. These students have a lot to contribute to their own learning and that of others.
Students with Limited or Interrupted Formal Education (SLIFE)
Research has shown that the benefits of use of L1 in the classroom is potentially even greater for students with limited or interrupted formal education (SLIFE). These students have developed their L1 differently from ELs who have had a formal education. For SLIFE, learning is situated in the family and community in a mentoring or apprenticeship cycle. As such, their learning is not based on print-based literacy. Instead, information is communicated orally and non-verbally at the same time that they are observing or participating in a hands-on process. In this scenario, the mentor shares knowledge with the learner. This is different from a teacher-student relationship which is not close. Even though SLIFE lack academic experience, they might possess skills and knowledge that are not traditionally valued at school. According to Paterson (2021), “It is crucial for teachers to recognize the resources that SLIFE bring to the classroom, be open to learning about them, and be willing to experiment with how to best utilize them in support of school-based learning” (p. 41).
L1 and the Digital Age
Language learning in the digital age is no longer limited to face-to-face interaction accompanied by text-based materials. Now, L1 can be integrated into “students’ digital realities” (Paterson, 2021, p. 42). One way is through digital storytelling. “This is a powerful way to build students’ school-based literacy. It provides students with the opportunity to construct multi-modal narratives which reflect their interests and lives outside of the classroom (Patterson, 2021, p. 43). Digital stories can take on different forms: e.g., creative, information-based, opinion-based, instructional or autobiographical. These projects can be used for all levels. They can also be published as hard copies or posted on an online platform. In these ways, they will reach larger audiences; students’ products are validated and are no longer limited to the classroom. According to Paterson (2021), “[Students] get a sense that the work they do in the classroom actually matters and has practical value in the wider world. In the process, their identities as competent biliterate and bilingual individuals are affirmed” (p. 45).
Chapter 3: Home Language and TESOL’s 6 Principles for Exemplary Teaching of English Learners
Created in 2018, TESOL’s 6 Principles of Exemplary Teaching of English Learners provide the foundation for effective English language instruction. These principles can be used at any age level and subject area for ELs; their focus is to develop ELs socially and academically. Chapter 3 explains how the home language can be beneficial and integrated into the 6 principles which entail
- knowing your learners;
- creating conditions for language learning;
- designing high-quality lessons for language development;
- adapting lesson delivery when needed;
- monitoring and assessing student language development; and
- engaging and collaborating within a community of practice (TESOL International Association, 2018).
Principle 1: Know Your Learners
In order to know ELs’ full linguistic repertoire, teachers need to know their students. In this way, teachers can connect what students know to the knowledge required for them to be successful in the classroom. A way to achieve this is by using the L1 in classroom activities. Among the activities that can be used are 1) meeting with families; 2) utilizing apps like ClassDojo and Remind which send messages to parents and share what is happening in the classroom; 3) communicating in the home language through welcome letters, calendars, and classroom forms; 4) use of journals whereby the family can communicate in L1 and English; 5) inviting guest speakers; and 6) welcoming family members to classroom events, project presentations, readers’ theater, and award ceremonies.
English Learners as Language Brokers
Language brokering, which involves translanguaging, takes place in many sites: classrooms, stores, banks, post offices, doctor’s offices, and government agencies; it can involve spoken or written discourse. Furthermore, it involves mediating and fostering the same linguistic resources that are needed to have academic success. For example, a language broker must “synthesize, label, describe, ask for clarification, and gauge whether they have accurately understood and conveyed meanings correctly” (Pimentel & Sevin, as cited in Paterson, 2021, p. 51). In terms of benefits, active brokering has been significantly related to increased standardized test scores for reading comprehension and mathematics (Dorner et al, 2007, as cited in Paterson, 2021, p. 52).
Principle 2: Create Conditions for Language Learning
It is important to create a positive and safe classroom in order for language learning to occur. When ELs know that they can use their L1, their anxiety decreases significantly. This enables them to be open to learning challenging academic content. As a result, ELs are in a better position to comprehend instructions fully and keep up with their peers. Paterson provides examples of how inclusive classrooms can be created.
- Have students complete a home language survey, have them write a language biography, or create an identity self-portrait.
- Encourage students to create short welcome messages in their L1 at the beginning of the school year. These are then posted in the classroom.
- Display students’ multilingual work on classroom walls. Also, include signs, posters, and labels which are in the students’ L1.
- Have family members send pictures or other artifacts that relate to a topic being presented in class.
- Create lessons that enable ELs to display their bilingual skills.
Principle 3: Design High-Quality Lessons for Language Development
According to Paterson (2021), Principle 3 encompasses the following:
- communicating clear outcomes;
- incorporating varied approaches, techniques, and modalities;
- involving authentic language use;
- actively engaging learners with relevant and meaningful content;
- allowing for differentiated instruction;
- promoting the use of learning strategies and critical thinking; and
- promoting students’ self-regulated learning (p. 55).
L1 plays an integral part in the design and delivery of lessons. It provides the opportunity for teachers to determine students’ competencies even if they are beginners in the L2. According to Paterson (2021), “If students can use L1 to demonstrate what they have learned, the teacher can create lessons that separate language proficiency from curricular objectives, fairly assess student progress, better identify challenge areas, and clearly communicate objectives and feedback to students” (p. 55).
Using Home Language to Actively Engage Learners with Relevant and Meaningful Content
The use of L1 helps ELs to connect with complex academic language that is found in reading and writing. If ELs are not given the opportunity to develop vocabulary and grammar, they are unlikely to comprehend and communicate complex academic content in L2. To resolve this, Cummins et al. (2012) offers 4 instructional dimensions.
- Scaffold students’ capacity to comprehend and use academic language using specific instructional strategies. This can be done through learning strategies, visual/graphic organizers, use of a bilingual dictionary, and L1 digital or text resources.
- Connect instruction to students’ lives by activating background knowledge (L1).
- Have students complete challenging academic work that showcases their literacy and language accomplishments in (L1 and L2) and affirms their academic, linguistic, and cultural identities
- Explicitly develop and extend students’ awareness and control of language across the curriculum (As cited in Paterson, 2021, p. 59).
Using Home Language to Facilitate Differentiated Learning
Differentiated learning uses multiple paths to learn challenging material. Key is scaffolding which can entail the use of the L1. In this way, students can use what they know in the L1 to scaffold to English. The amount of L1 that is used in the classroom can be modified depending on how challenging a task is as well as an EL’s proficiency level, needs and goals. There are different types of materials that can be used: wordless books (grades K-6), storytelling (K-6), jigsaw (K-6), wordless poetry books (grades 2-6), and creative writing (grades 2-6).
Using Home Language to Promote the Use of Learning Strategies and Critical Thinking
The L1 can be used to promote learning strategies and critical thinking. The learning strategies consist of the following: metacognitive and metalinguistic strategies; cognitive strategies; and social/affective strategies. For metacognitive/metalinguistic strategies, have students engage in self-monitoring, comprehension and production, selective attention, visualization, and organizational planning (Paterson, 2021, p 64).
Cognitive strategies which involve critical thinking can take the form of note-taking, guessing meaning from context, or extending prior knowledge. For example, have ELs take notes in English and their L1. Another strategy is allowing ELs to prewrite in their L1. This can later result in more complex writing in English.
Social/affective strategies take place in cooperating with others, empathizing, asking for clarifications, and self-talk. These strategies can make a difference to the extent that learning occurs.
Using Home Language to Promote Students’ Self-Regulated Learning
Allowing ELs to draw on their prior knowledge sets up students for being able to complete tasks on their own. This also leads to increased self-confidence and self-reliance in the classroom. Furthermore, it leads to more active participants in the classroom. Finally, these ELs will have a deeper understanding of newly introduced concepts, vocabulary, and a positive learning environment.
Principle 4: Adapt Lesson Delivery as Needed
This principle involves using L1 “at the moment.” Based on learners’ responses, “L1 may be used to aid comprehension of auditory and written input, scaffold learning, and/or provide opportunities for students to demonstrate learning” (Paterson, 2021, p. 65). Three activities are introduced that instructors can use: 1) 10-2 activities (teach for 10 minutes and give the students 2 minutes to interact with the new information); 2) comprehension checks (thumbs up/thumbs down, response boards); and 3) adapting the product of the learning task (creating bilingual culminating projects and presentations) (Paterson, 2021, p. 66).
Principle 5: Monitor and Assess Student Language Development
Students may have the competency of a new concept but not have the proficiency to express themselves. The inclusion of L1 corrects this very serious flaw of English-only assessment for ELs. L1 use makes it possible to differentiate what a student knows and can do using their entire linguistic repertoire from what they are able to demonstrate using only English (p. 67). Garcia, Johnson et al. (2017) provide a translanguaging device for assessment. It gathers information across students’ repertoire to evaluate what they know and can do with content and language relative to standards, objectives, and culminating projects (as cited in Paterson, 2021, p. 68).
Principle 6: Engage and Collaborate within a Community of Practice
A community of practice involves a group of professionals who engage collectively to learn more about their profession. Now it is imperative that all teachers work collaboratively to help their students, which include ELs. Bilingual or dual-language teachers, as well those who share the L1 and culture with ELs, are resources that non-bilingual teachers can tap. School administrators also have a role to play in arranging scheduling in such a way that allows teachers to come together in collaborative professional learning teams to share knowledge and teaching tools. (Paterson, 2021, p. 71). Therefore, it is important to establish communities of practice where all school personnel are responsible for ELs’ success.
Finally, there is reflective practice. It is also instrumental in engaging within a community of practice. This means teachers examine their assumptions of everyday practices and evaluate them. Approaching teaching as a reflective practitioner involves melding personal beliefs and values into a professional identity (Paterson, 2021, p. 71). This identity will work towards equitable instruction for all students.
Chapter 4: Moving Toward a More Equitable Future
Paterson calls for a shift when it comes to teaching EL students. Instead of following a deficit model, with its authoritarian, Euro-centric stance, an asset-based approach is advocated: i.e., one that embraces ELs’ L1 as well as their accomplishments in the L2. Furthermore, Paterson (2021) examines such elements as 1) the standards used to measure ELs success in English; 2) course materials that promote diversity in the classroom; 3) the possible discrepancy between language competence and language proficiency; and 4) the adoption of a plurilingual stance (p. 75).
Redefining Success
Success for ELs needs to be reconsidered. Ideally, it should be the English used by effective L2 users and not native English speakers. The dilemma is that there are no curricular descriptions of what this actually looks like. For Paterson (2021), “…[W]e should focus on what [ELs] are able to do with their language skills, including what they accomplish using all of the languages in their repertoire” (p. 77). Rather than compare ELs to monolingual native English speakers, Paterson (2021) wants educators to consider whether ELs are able to
- communicate effectively in a variety of social settings;
- achieve academic success in content areas;
- take ownership of their learning, both independently and in groups;
- use effective learning strategies;
- function in an information-and technology-based society;
- advocate for themselves;
- use critical literacy and critical thinking skills to interpret the world around them;
- participate to their desired extent, in social, cultural, political, and economic life (pp. 77-78).
Paterson ends this section by noting that if a student is unable to express himself in English, this does not mean he lacks the knowledge or the skill of a particular objective. Use of the L1 can provide insight on how much English is understood.
Reimaging Instructional Materials
According to the British Council (2013), the ratio of L2 speakers to native English speakers is 4 to 1 (as cited in Paterson, 2021, p. 79). As such, there is a need for more models of L2 user speech in the classroom. In our increasingly digitally intertwined world, this would help prepare L2 and native English speakers for real-life interactions with people who speak different varieties of English.
As for textbooks, they tend to focus on the “powerful native English speaker.” Paterson (2021) calls for
[r]evising classroom materials to include examples of L2 user English and depictions of L2 users as successful members of society. [These] are necessary steps in balancing power relations and sending the message that diverse cultures, languages and varieties of English have equal worth. (p. 79)
Paterson (2021) ends this section by providing practice ideas. One is called “Identify, Record, and Discuss Positive L2 User Role Models.” Here, students find three examples of successful L2 English speakers from their L1 background. Students are then asked why they think their examples are good models of L2 speakers. The results can enable the class to “set appropriate goals and begin establishing L2 user norms” (Paterson, 2021, p. 80). Paterson thinks this works best in ESL classrooms” (p. 80).
Another practice-based idea is creating an audiobook for kindergarten and grade 1 students. Essentially, a children’s book is recorded while it is read aloud. The technology used can be as sophisticated or as simple as the teacher/class requires. “The audiobooks become samples of L2 user English that can be used as models for future cohorts and younger students in the school. This activity works well with ESL and mixed student groups” (Paterson, 2021, pp. 80-81).
Toward Plurilingualism in (Language) Education
Plurilingualism focuses on the individual and not the group.
Its focus is on all of the languages that an EL has in his linguistic repertoire. Credence is given to partial skills as well as the cultural dimensions of language and its use. Plurilingualism accounts for a language learner’s multicompetence. If a multicompetent person does not have mastery (native-like proficiency), they are not deficient but someone who has constructive competence and the potential to carry out tasks in various domains and situations. (Chen & Helot, 2018, as cited in Paterson, 2021, p. 82)
Adopting a plurilingualism stance is not limited to ESL teachers. Rather, teachers of any subject area and grade level can do so. A teacher with a plurilingual approach uses students’ knowledge to enhance learning and maintain high expectations for all students. Furthermore, teachers and students engage in critical conversation which examine “…the inequitable power structures embedded in education and broader society that disadvantages those from diverse backgrounds. A plurilingual orientation calls for a future of social justice” (Paterson, 2021, p. 83). Therefore, the classroom, which has been a place that reinforces inequities based on race, gender, and economics, can become a place of resistance and change.
Conclusion
I have been following translanguaging for some time. My question has been, what does it actually look like in the classroom? Paterson provides powerful examples and resources of how the L1 can be incorporated into any classroom even if the teacher is not bilingual. Paterson does not end there, however. She goes further by advocating for a plurilingual approach that challenges the barriers that have “recreated differences, restricted access, and marginalized children from linguistically and culturally diverse backgrounds” (p. 83). In the words of bell hooks (1994), “the classroom with all of its limitations, remains a location of possibility” (p. 207). The incorporation of ELs home language can definitely contribute to this.
References
Hooks, b.(1994). Teaching to transgress education as the practice of freedom. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203700280